Ben Humphreys

I was playing with the Python NLTK again for the first time in a while and made myself the task of finding out all the different ways “to go” is used in English. So I was aiming for a list including stuff like “to go up”, “to go down” etc.

Apologies if the Python code is horrible, I’m still getting used to how to do things in it. Consequently I’m thinking in a mix of Perl/Ruby and still reading the manual a lot.

Code:

import nltk
from nltk.corpus import brown
from nltk.stem.regexp import *

porter = nltk.PorterStemmer()

import re
p = re.compile('\w+')

words = []

def process(sentence):
    for (w1, t1), (w2, t2) in nltk.bigrams(sentence):
        stem1 = porter.stem(w1)
        if (stem1 == 'go' and t1.startswith('V') and p.match(t2)):
            words.append( 'to ' + stem1 + ' ' + w2 + ' (' + t1 + ', ' + t2 + ')' )

for tagged_sent in brown.tagged_sents():
    process(tagged_sent)

f = open('output.txt', 'w')

fdist = nltk.FreqDist(words)
for key, val in fdist.items():
    f.write( "%d : %s\n" % ( val, key ) )

The results are:

202 : to go to (VBG, TO)
94 : to go to (VB, IN)
34 : to go to (VBG, IN)
29 : to go on (VB, RP)
27 : to go on (VBG, RP)
25 : to go out (VB, RP)
24 : to go back (VB, RB)
18 : to go home (VB, NR)
18 : to go into (VB, IN)
18 : to go up (VB, RP)
18 : to go with (VB, IN)
10 : to go down (VB, RP)
9 : to go back (VBG, RB)
8 : to go into (VBG, IN)
8 : to go through (VB, IN)
7 : to go a (VB, AT)
7 : to go and (VB, CC)
7 : to go for (VB, IN)
7 : to go out (VBG, RP)
7 : to go over (VB, RP)
7 : to go to (VB, TO)
...

I could do more to trim down the results, like merging all the different types of verb part-of-speech tags (VB, VBG).

Any comments, I’d be happy to hear them.

Been reading more about MT, and gave the Excite English translator a go.

In particular whether it knows what’s animate, and what’s inanimate.

There is a rock.

岩石があります。

Knows to use the correct inanimate あります.

There is a man.

男性がいます。

Knows that “man” is animate.

There is a rock man.

ロック男性がいます。

There is a weevil.

ワタノゾウムシがいます。

There is a red-spotted weevil.

赤くぶちのワタノゾウムシがいます。

There is a tyrannosaurus.

ティラノザウルスがいます。

There is a tick.

カチカチする音があります。

Oh dear fail.

There is a foo.

fooがあります。

Not sure what a foo is, defaults to inanimate.

As a bonus:

There is a walking man.

通行人がいます。

There is a man walking.

歩いている男性がいます。

This is another thing that surprised me on my travels around Wikipedia. Apparently Japanese “sh” is not identical to English as I have always thought. Also Korean is placed with Japanese rather than with English.

English — ʃ — Sheep — Voiceless palato-alveolar fricative Japanese/Korean — ɕ — 塩 (shio) — Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative

Note the only difference between the 2 linguistic classifications is the order of palatal / alveolar.

I’ve listened to some of the samples on Wikipedia and I still can’t get my head around the difference. One of my native friends says that the Japanese “sh” is in between English “sink” and English “sheep”.

I’ll look for better explanations or examples but if anyone’s got some I’d love to hear about them.

While looking up what a voiced labial-velar approximant is (spoiler, it’s the wuh in weep), I came across something weird about Japanese.

On the page it said that 私 is written as ɰ͡β̞ataɕi in IPA, and is not exactly a Voiced labial-velar approximant. On the Japanese phonology page, it says:

7. The compressed velar /w͍/ is essentially a non-moraic version of the vowel /u͍/. It is not equivalent to a typical IPA [w] since it is pronounced with lip compression rather than rounding ([ɰ͡β̞]).

My linguistese is still developing so I wandered round Wikipedia translating the terms into stuff I could understand:

Compressed: When you round your lips to make a “W” sound, but you’re not sticking out your lips like you’re kissing someone (that’s called protruded). No, really. Examples below:

Compressed rounding example, aka The First Kiss	Protruded rounding example aka The Sloppy Kisser

Velar: Consonants made with the back of the tongue touched against the top of the soft palate at the back of your mouth. Try making a W sound and then try putting your tongue at the bottom of your mouth towards the front and you’ll see the difference.

Non-moraic: A mora is described as “a unit of sound used in phonology that determines syllable weight (which in turn determines stress or timing) in some languages”. So in this instance the sound does not really count as a syllable (I think). There’s also an interesting note on that page about Japanese and moras which is somewhat related to my previous post on syllables in Hebrew and Japanese.

w͍ and u͍: The only reference to these I could find was on the general IPA page, which seems to suggest that the symbols underneath are used to represent unexpected roundness. I take this to mean the way that “u” can be pronounced with or without rounding your lips (see picture above).

So after all that, here’s a simpler explanation!

The first consonant “w” in 私 (watashi) is made by pressing your lips together rather than sticking out them as in the English “w”.

I have always pronounced the “w” without thinking about it so I think my “W” is rounded as that’s what English has. I’ll try to observe how Japanese people form the sound and see if there is a difference.

I’m watching some iTunes U podcasts on Elementary Hebrew and in a chapter on Vowels, the presenter makes an interesting point about Hebrew.

He says that Hebrew only has 2 possible syllable constructions:

1. Consonant-vowel (Open)
2. Consonant-vowel-consonant (Closed)

Although he said at the start of one of the other presentations that there is a word “ab”, which surely is Vowel-consonant. I’m not sure on this.

Going on, and if I’m totally wrong about this then please call me out on it, but it struck me as interesting, thinking back to my study of Japanese, Korean and English.

Japanese

After thinking about Japanese for a while, I still couldn’t get back to such a simple set of rules that he comes up with about Hebrew.

1. かたな (ka ta na, sword). Standard Cv pairs that I thought of at first.
2. パン (pa n, bread). This has the Japanese ん (n) sound, making a Cvc syllable.
3. あか (a ka, red). Now things get interesting, as this is 2 syllables in my mind. The first a being one, and ka being a standard Cv pair.
4. あん (a n, red bean paste) is an example of vowel-consonant that is definitely one syllable.
5. Finally one that I still can’t get my head around: あおい (aoi, blue). All vowels, sounds like 2 syllables to me but I’m not sure.

So Japanese syllables look something like:

1. V — い (i, stomach)
2. Cv — か (ka, mosquito)
3. Vc — あん (an, red bean paste)
4. Vv — あい (ai, love)
5. Cvc — パン (pan, bread)

Edit: it seems Japanese phonology focusses on Mora rather than syllables, so each character counts as 1 mora. For example even the っ and ん in the word にっぽん count as morae.

Korean

Swiftly moving on from that quagmire, next is Korean. I’m still new to Korean, but here’s what I know:

1. 원 (won, won) Cvc maybe.
2. 사과 (sa gua, apple) Cv Cv(v?). Maybe because this is a dipthong the second 2 vowels only count as one.
3. 수업 (su eop, lesson). This has something close to a glottal stop at the end, but it seems like Cv Vc to me.

I think Korean is basically the same as Japanese. However it has a greater variety of final consonants used in closed syllables, whereas Japanese only uses ん (n).

Conclusion, or lack of one.

Based on all this, I wonder if the lecturer was just simplifying things in the early lectures and will visit this topic later. I also wonder if there’s a more concrete definition of what makes up a syllable. Some of the vowel-vowel pairs could be dipthongs, but I think I still pronounce them as one syllable.

I have jokingly said in the past:

The best way to learn Korean is to learn Japanese first.

If you know Japanese, you already have a huge advantage when it comes to learning Korean.

Most of this information you can find on the Wikipedia website for Korean, but I’m approaching it from the perspective of someone who understands Japanese. Bear in mind that I have been learning for less than a year so some of the analyses I make may be incorrect.

First off the bat, if you have any experience in learning European languages, you will notice how similar they are to English. In the same way, Korean and Japanese share extremely similar grammatical rules, and some vocabulary too.

Vocabulary

Before delving into grammar, it’s best I explain how similar the two languages really are simply in terms of vocabulary.

Korean has a different system of writing to Japanese called Hangul. It is a completely phonetic system similar to hiragana and katakana, but differs in the way individual characters are formed. I will not go into the full details of it, but simply show an example of how a word is formed.

Newspaper in Korean is “shin mun” (신문). The individual parts of a word are broken down into single consonants and vowels, which are written as separate parts.

ㅅ=s　　ㅣ=i　　ㄴ=n

ㅁ=m　　ㅜ=u　　ㄴ=n

These pieces are then arranged to fit in a single square following some simple rules about their shape.

ㅅ ㅣ ㄴ = 신 Notice the first two ‘letters’ are on the top line together, followed by the ‘n’ on the bottom line.

ㅁ ㅜ ㄴ = 문 In comparison, the wide ‘u’ character means that the 3 pieces must be arranged vertically.

In the same way that Japanese has both hiragana and Kanji, Korean has hangul and Hanja (Chinese characters). However in comparison to Japanese, hanja are not mixed in with the phonetic words.

私は新聞を読みました。

This example sentence contains a mixture of Chinese characters and Japanese phonetic hiragana, a style which does not appear in modern Korean. Instead, Korean is now written entirely in phonetic Hangul.

As a learner of Japanese, this can seem harder to read at first. It is possible to read Japanese at high speed by glancing at the Kanji that have tightly-packed information and using the hiragana sections as markers to identify the breaks between words. Using the example above, Kanji rarely come after a word has begun, but instead mark the start of words, and may be followed by particles or verb endings. To break up words in Korean it seems common to use spaces, as with European languages.

Returning to the issue of hangul and Chinese characters, written Korean does not mix the two, but the concept of kanji are still present under the surface even if they are not written explicitly. This can be illustrated with an example:

日曜日に　日本人の　　学生は　　　　大学に　　行きました。

일요일에　일본인의　　학생은　　　　대학에　　갔습니다.

il yo il e　il bon in ui　hak seng un　de hak e　kas sum ni da

On Sunday the Japanese student went to university.

For now ignore the way that the two languages are pronounced and simply match up the Kanji to the hangul below. The grammar in the two languages is similar enough to transliterate in the example.

日=일 (il) as in 일요일

学=학 (hak) as in 대학

Notice that in Japanese, the 日 character is read as both にち, び and にっ whereas its reading is consistent in Korean. In Japanese there are multiple 音読み (used in Kanji compounds) and 訓読み (used when the word is alone) for each character, which must be learnt as well as in which situations each one is used. In Korean most characters have a single 音読み and a single 訓読み. This combined with your knowledge of Kanji from Japanese means it is possible to ‘create’ words that you know in Japanese from your knowledge of the way to read those words in Korean. To start with a trivial example:

학생 = 学生

대학 = 大学

Can be used to create 大学 生=대학생

An example that I have used myself in the past: I know 학생 = 学生, and 일본=日本, so I know that in Kanji compounds 生=생 and 일=日. I want to make the word 誕生日 in Korean. So it’s likely to be “_생일” and it is in fact just “생일”.

A final point regarding vocabulary worth pointing out is that there are a number of words and Kanji that have similar pronunciation. For example:

かばん = 가방 (ka bang) = bag

新聞 = 신문 (shin mun) = newspaper

As shown here, it’s possible to understand new words from a mixture of knowledge of how Kanji are pronounced in Korean and Japanese vocabulary.

Grammar

Korean and Japanese share the same particle system that confuses so many western learners at first. As someone with experience in Japanese though this works to your advantage. I would strongly recommend anyone learning Korean to use a Japanese-based textbook, as it skips all the explanation of what a particle is and how to use them, and simply gives you a chart similar to the following:

は＝은/는

が＝이/가

を＝을/를

の＝의

に＝에/에게

etc.

While there are other rules that affect how particles are used in Korean, the overall grammatical structure is similar enough to allow transliteration when first learning. I still construct sentences in Japanese in my head and then translate them word-for-word into Korean. This takes more time and I expect to grow out of it eventually, but it produces gramatically-correct sentences so it has its uses.

私は　韓国語を　勉強　して　います

저는　한국어를　공부　하고　있어요

Conclusion

That about wraps it up for an introduction. There’s still issues of pronunciation, which is more complex in Korean than Japanese but seems to be relatively easy for English-speakers to learn with a bit of practice. If you know Japanese and are thinking about learning another language, I would recommend Korean as it’s simple to get into and can actually improve your knowledge of Japanese kanji as you learn more to help you create Korean words.